Racial stories as learning moments: An ecological exploration of Black adolescents’ racial learning experiences
Corresponding Author
Jon Alexander Watford
New York University, New York, New York, USA
Correspondence
Jon Alexander Watford, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Jon Alexander Watford
New York University, New York, New York, USA
Correspondence
Jon Alexander Watford, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorSpecial Issue on “Ethnic-Racial Socialization Among Children and Adolescents”
Journal of Social Issues
Abstract
Youth in the United States receive countless messages about the meanings and consequences of racial group membership. The processes through which these racialized messages are transmitted, known collectively as ethnic-racial socialization, are known to influence youths’ psychosocial and academic development—especially their ethnic-racial identity. However, most studies have focused exclusively on parents’ roles in the ethnic-racial socialization process. In the present study, drawing on semi-structured interviews with 64 Black adolescents, we examined youths’ descriptions of their experiences with (and understandings of) race to provide an “up-close” view of the sources and processes involved in ethnic-racial socialization. In addition to providing further evidence of the roles of parents and school curricula in shaping youths’ racial beliefs, results suggested that ethnic-racial socialization messages frequently emerged from youths’ direct and vicarious exposure to racial discrimination and inequality in the schools they attended, the public places they visited, and in the media they consumed.
REFERENCES
- Bakouri, M. & Staerklé, C. (2015) Coping with structural disadvantage: Overcoming negative effects of perceived barriers through bonding identities. British Journal of Social Psychology, 54(4), 648–670. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12102
- Bigler, R. S., Jones, L. C. & Lobliner, D. B. (1997) Social categorization and the formation of intergroup attitudes in children. Child Development, 68(3), 530–543. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01956.x
- Bigler, R. S. & Liben, L. S. (2006) A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 39–89. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2407(06)80004-2
- Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706QP063OA
10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Google Scholar
- Byrd, C. M. (2018) A measure of school racial socialization and quality of intergroup interactions. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 137–151. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000202
- Byrd, C. M. & Hope, E. C. (2020) Black students’ perceptions of school ethnic-racial socialization practices in a predominantly Black school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 35(6), 728–753. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558419897386
- Chen, Y. L. & Fouad, N. A. (2013) Asian American educational goals. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(1), 73–90. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712454700
- Cross, F. L., Hoffman, A. J., Constante, K. & Rivas-Drake, D. (2018) Ethnic–racial identity content and the development of depressive symptoms among Latino adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 30(5), 1557–1569. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001086
- Del Toro J., Hughes D., Way N. (2021) Inter-relations between ethnic-racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity among early adolescents. Child Development, 92(1), e106–e125. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13424
- Deterding N. M., Waters M. C. (2021) Flexible coding of in-depth interviews: A twenty-first-century approach. Sociological Methods & Research, 50(2), 708–739. http://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118799377
- Doyle, A. B. & Aboud, F. E. (1995) A longitudinal study of White children's racial prejudice as a social-cognitive development. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 41(2), 209–228. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23090532.
- Ferguson, A. A. (2000) Bad boys. University of Michigan Press.
10.3998/mpub.16801 Google Scholar
- Gillen-O'Neel, C., Ruble, D. N. & Fuligni, A. J. (2011) Ethnic stigma, academic anxiety, and intrinsic motivation in middle childhood. Child Development, 82(5), 1470–1485. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01621.x
- Harris, J. A., Beale Spencer, M., Kruger, A. C. & Irving, M. A. (2019) An examination and interrogation of African American males’ racial identity, prosocial behaviors and aggression. Research in Human Development, 16(1), 76–91. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2018.1556068
- Hitti, A., Mulvey, K. L., Rutland, A., Abrams, D. & Killen, M. (2014) When is it okay to exclude a member of the ingroup? Children's and adolescents’ social reasoning. Social Development, 23(3), 451–469. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12047
- Hoffman A. J., Pullés S. A., Medina M. A., Pinetta B. J., Rivas-Drake D., Schaefer D. R., Jagers R. J. (2021). Considering multiple levels of influence on adjustment in school: Ethnic–racial public regard, peer socialization, and social-emotional learning practices. Social Development, 30(3), 806–832. http://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12501
- Hope, E. C., Skoog, A. B. & Jagers, R. J. (2015) It'll never be the White kids, it'll always be us”: Black high school students’ evolving critical analysis of racial discrimination and inequity in schools. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 83–112. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414550688
- Hughes, D. L. & Chen, L. (1999) The nature of parents’ race-related communications to children: A developmental perspective. In L. Balter & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues. (pp. 467–490). Psychology Press.
- Hughes, D. L., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C. & Spicer, P. (2006) Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747
- Hughes, D. L., Watford, J. A. & Del Toro, J. (2016) A transactional/ecological perspective on ethnic–racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. In S. S. Horn, M. D. Ruck, & L. S. Liben (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior. (Vol., 51, pp. 1–41). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.001
- Hughes, D. L., Harding, J., Niwa, E. Y., Del Toro, J. & Way, N. (2017) Racial socialization and racial discrimination as intra- and intergroup processes. In A. Rutland, D. Nesdale, & C. S. Brown (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of group processes in children and adolescents. (pp. 241–268). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118773123.ch12
10.1002/9781118773123.ch12 Google Scholar
- Katz, P. A. (2003) Racists or tolerant multiculturalists? How do they begin? American Psychologist, 58(11), 897–909. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.11.897b
- Killen, M., Henning, A., Kelly, M. C., Crystal, D. & Ruck, M. (2007) Evaluations of interracial peer encounters by majority and minority US children and adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(5), 491–500. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407081478
- Kuchirko, Y. & Nayfeld, I. (2021) Where identity, race, and education intersect: Examining the implications of “achievement gap” discourse on lived experiences of students of color. Journal of Social Issues.
- Lewis, A. E. (2003) Race in the schoolyard: Negotiating the color line in classrooms and communities. Rutgers University Press.
10.36019/9780813547039 Google Scholar
- McGlothlin, H. & Killen, M. (2010) How social experience is related to children's intergroup attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 625–634. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.733
- McGuire, L., Rutland, A. & Nesdale, D. (2015) Peer group norms and accountability moderate the effect of school norms on children's intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 86(4), 1290–1297. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12388
- McKown, C. & Strambler, M. J. (2009) Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype-consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 80(6), 1643–1659. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01359.x
- Medina, M. A., Rivas-Drake, D., Jagers, R. J. & Rowley, S. J. (2019) Friends matter: Ethnic-racial identity and school adjustment among African American and Latino early adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 1–16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1524712
- Mickelson, R. A. (1990) The attitude-achievement paradox among Black Adolescents. Sociology of Education, 63(1), 44–61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/2112896
- Mickelson, R. A. (2015) The cumulative disadvantages of first-and second-generation segregation for middle school achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 52(4), 657–692. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831215587933
- Oakes, J. (2005) Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
- Ojeda, L. & Flores, L. Y. (2008) The influence of gender, generation level, parents’ education level, and perceived barriers on the educational aspirations of Mexican American high school students. The Career Development Quarterly, 57(1), 84–95. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2008.tb00168.x
- Polanyi, L. (1989) Telling the American Story: A structural and cultural analysis of conversational storytelling. MIT Press.
- Pollock, M. (2004) Colormute: Race talk dilemmas in an American school. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7rjh1.6
- Priest N., Walton J., White F., Kowal E., Baker A., Paradies Y. (2014) Understanding the complexities of ethnic-racial socialization processes for both minority and majority groups: A 30-year systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 139–155. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.08.003
- Quintana, S. M. (1998) Children's developmental understanding of ethnicity and race. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7(1), 27–45. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(98)80020-6
- Ritterhouse, J. (2006) Growing up Jim Crow: How Black and White southern children learned race. Univ of North Carolina Press.
- Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A., Markstrom, C., French, S. & Schwartz, S. J., … & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014) Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta-analysis of positive ethnic–racial affect and adjustment. Child Development, 85(1), 77–102. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175
- Rivas-Drake, D., Hughes, D. L. & Way, N. (2009) A preliminary analysis of associations among ethnic-racial socialization, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic identity among urban sixth graders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(3), 558–584. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00607.x
- Rogers, L. O., Butler-Barnes, S.T. & Sahaguian, L. (2021) #BlackGirlMagic: A mixed-method analysis of media as socializing agent of Black adolescent girls’ identities. Journal of Social Issues, 77(4), 1282–1304.
- Saleem, F. T. & Byrd, C. (2021) Unpacking school ethnic-racial socialization in context. Journal of Social Issues, 77(4), 1106–1125.
- Seaton, E. K. & Iida, M. (2019) Racial discrimination and racial identity: Daily moderation among Black youth. American Psychologist, 74(1), 117–127. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000367
- Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A. J. J. & Chavous, T. M. (1998) Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2
- Staiger, A. (2004) Whiteness as giftedness: Racial formation at an urban high school. Social Problems, 51(2), 161–181. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2004.51.2.161
- Stevenson, H. C. (1996) Development of the scale of racial socialization for African American adolescents. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Handbook of tests and measurements for Black populations. Vol., 1. (pp. 309–326). Cobb & Henry.
- Tyson, K. (2011) Integration interrupted: Tracking, Black students, and acting White after Brown. University of Oxford Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199736447.001.0001
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199736447.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J. & Hill, N. E. (2020) Ethnic-racial socialization in the family: A decade's advance on precursors and outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 244–271. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12622
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., et al. & Study Group on Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century (2014) Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196
- van Ausdale, D. & Feagin, J. R. (2001) The first r: How children learn race and racism. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Verkuyten, M. & Kinket, B. (2000) Social distances in a multi ethnic society: The ethnic hierarchy among Dutch preadolescents. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(1), 75–85. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/2695882
- Te Wang, M., Smith, L. V., Miller-Cotto, D. A. & Huguley, J. P. (2019) Parental ethnic-racial socialization and children of color's academic success: A meta-analytic review. Child Development, 91, e528-e544. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13254
- Webster, L. & Mertova, P. (2007) Using narrative inquiry as a research method: An introduction to using critical event narrative analysis in research on learning and teaching. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946268
10.4324/9780203946268 Google Scholar
- Williams, C. D., Byrd, C. M., Quintana, S. M., Anicama, C., Kiang, L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., et al. (2020) A lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity. Research in Human Development, 1–31. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882
- Winkler, E. N. (2012) Learning race, learning place: Shaping racial identities and ideas in African American childhoods. Rutgers University Press.
Citing Literature
Special Issue:Ethnic‐Racial Socialization Among Children and Adolescents
December 2021
Pages 1149-1173