Introduction
Cultural Schemas, Social Class, and the Flexibility Stigma
Joan C. Williams,
Mary Blair-Loy, Jennifer L. Berdahl,
Corresponding Author
Joan C. Williams
University of California-Hastings College of the Law
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joan C. Williams, Distinguished Professor of Law, Hastings Foundation Chair, Founding Director, Center for WorkLife Lawm, UC Hastings College of the Law, 200 McAllister Street, San Francisco, CA 94102. Tel: (415) 565-4706 [e-mail: [email protected]].Search for more papers by this authorJoan C. Williams,
Mary Blair-Loy, Jennifer L. Berdahl,
Corresponding Author
Joan C. Williams
University of California-Hastings College of the Law
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joan C. Williams, Distinguished Professor of Law, Hastings Foundation Chair, Founding Director, Center for WorkLife Lawm, UC Hastings College of the Law, 200 McAllister Street, San Francisco, CA 94102. Tel: (415) 565-4706 [e-mail: [email protected]].Search for more papers by this author
References
- Acs, G., & Loprest, P. (2008). Low-skill jobs, work hours, and paid time off (Urban Institute, Brief No. 2). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
- Albiston, C. R. (2007). Institutional perspectives on law, work, and family. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 3, 397–426.
- Allen, T. D. (2001). Family-supportive work environments: The role of organizational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 414–435.
- Allen, T. D., & Russell, J. E. A. (1999). Parental leave of absence: Some not so family friendly implications. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 166–191.
- Aumann, K., Galinsky, E., & Matos, K. (2011). The new male mystique. National Study of the Changing Workforce. New York: Families and Work Institute.
- Bar Association of San Francisco Work-Life Balance Initiative Conference. September (2006).
- Benard, S., & Correll, S. J. (2010). Normative discrimination and the motherhood penalty. Gender & Society, 24(5), 616–646.
- Benard, S., Paik, I., & Correll, S. J. (2008). Cognitive bias and the motherhood penalty. Hastings Law Journal, 59, 101–129.
- Berdahl, J. L., & Moon, S. H. (2013). Workplace mistreatment of middle class workers based on sex, parenthood, and caregiving. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 341–366.
- Bianchi, S. M., Robinson, J. P., & Milkie, M. A. (2006). Changing rhythms of American family life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Blair-Loy, M. (2003). Competing devotions: Career and family among women executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Blair-Loy, M. (2010). Moral dimensions of the work-family nexus. In S. Hitlin & S. Vaisey (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of morality (pp. 439–453). New York: Springer.
- Blair-Loy, M., & Wharton, A. S. (2002). Employees’ use of family-responsive policies and the workplace social context. Social Forces, 80(3), 813–845.
- Blair-Loy, M., & Wharton, A. S. (2004). Mothers in finance: Surviving and thriving. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 596(1), 151–171.
- Blair-Loy, M., Wharton, A. S., & Goodstein, J. (2011). Exploring the relationship between mission statements and work–life practices in organizations. Organization Studies, 32, 427–450.
- Bornstein, S. (2013). The legal and policy implications of the “flexibility stigma”. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 389–405.
- Brescoll, V. L., Glass, J., & Sedlovskaya, A. (2013). Ask and ye shall receive? The dynamics of employer provided flexible work options and the need for public policy. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 367–388.
- Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225.
- Butler, A. B., & Skattebo, A. (2004). What is acceptable for women may not be for men: The effect of family conflicts with work on job performance ratings. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 77(4), 553–64.
- Cohen, J. R., & Single, L. E. (2001). An examination of the perceived impact of flexible work arrangements on professional opportunities in public accounting. Journal of Business Ethics, 32, 317–328. doi: 10.1177/0192513X06292809.
- Coltrane, S., Miller, E., DeHaan, T., & Stewart, L. (2013). Fathers and the flexibility stigma. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 279–302.
- Cooper, M. (2002). Being the “go-to guy”: Fatherhood, masculinity, and the organization of work in Silicon Valley. In N. Gerstel, D. Clawson & R. Zussman (Eds.), Families at work: Expanding the bounds (pp. 5–31). Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
- Corporate Voices for Working Families & WFD Consulting. (2006). Workplace flexibility for lower wage workers. Washington, DC. Retrieved December 20, 2010, from http://www.cvworkingfamilies.org/system/files/lowerwageflexreviewreport
- Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112(5), 1297–1338.
- Crosby, F. J., Williams, J. C., & Biernat, M. (Eds.). (2004). The maternal wall [Special issue]. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 667–865.
- Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn't cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 701–718. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00381.x.
- Davis, A. E., & Kalleberg, A. L. (2006). Family-friendly organizations? Work and family programs in the 1990s. Work and Occupations, 33, 191–223.
- “ Death by overwork in Japan, Jobs for life.” (2007, December 19). The Economist. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.economist.com/node/10329261?STORY_ID=10329261
- Devine, P. G., & Baker, S. M. (1991). Measurement of racial stereotype subtyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 44–50.
- Dodson, L. (2009). The moral underground: How ordinary Americans subvert an unfair economy. New York: The New Press.
- Dodson, L. (2013). Stereotyping low-wage mothers who have work and family conflicts. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 257–278.
- Dodson, L., Manuel, Y., & Bravo, E. (2002). Keeping jobs and raising families in low-income America: It just doesn't work. Radcliffe Institute of Public Policy Report. Cambridge, MA: Radcliffe Institute of Public Policy.
- Epner, J. G. (2006). Visible invisibility: Women of color in law firms. ABA Commission on Women in the Profession Report. Chicago: American Bar Association.
- Epstein, C. F., Seron, C., Oglensky, B., & Sauté, R. (1999). The part-time paradox: Time norms, professional life, family and gender. New York: Routledge.
- Fiske, S. T. & Berdahl, J. L. (2007). Social power. In A. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: A handbook of basic principles (pp. 678–692). New York: The Guilford Press.
- Frank, R. (1995). The winner take all society: Why the few at the top get so much more than the rest of us. New York: Penguin Books.
- Friedman, D. (n.d.). Workplace flexibility: A guide for companies. New York: Families and Work Institute. Retrieved May 3, 2012 from http://familiesandwork.org/3w/tips/downloads/companies.pdf
- Galinsky, E., Bond, J. T., & Sakai, K. (2008). 2008 National study of employers: When work works. New York: Families and Work Institute. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/2008nse.pdf
- Gerstel, N., & Clawson, D. (2001). Unions’ responses to family concerns. Social Problems, 48(2), 277–298.
- Glass, J. L. (2004). Blessing or curse? Family responsive policies and mothers’ wage growth over time. Work and Occupations, 31(3), 367–394.
- Glavin, P., Schieman, S., & Reid, S. (2011). Boundary-spanning work demands and their consequences for guilt and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior March 2011, 52, 43–57.
- Gornick, J., & Meyers, M. (2005). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Henly, J., & Lambert, S. J. (2005). Nonstandard work and childcare needs of low-income parents. In S. Bianchi, L. Caspar, & R. Kind (Eds.), Work, family, health, and well-being (p. 469–488). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Heymann, J. (2000). The widening gap: Why America's working families are in jeopardy. New York: Basic Books.
- Heymann, J. (2005). Inequalities at work and at home: Social class and gender divides. In J. Heymann & C. Beem (Eds), Unfinished work: Building equality and democracy in an era of working Families (p. 89–121). New York: The New Press.
- Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2004). The time divide: Work, family, and gender inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Judiesch, M. K., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). Left behind? The impact of leaves of absence on managers’ career success. The Academy of Management Journal, 42, 641–651.
- Kennelly, I. (1999). That single-mother element: How White employers typify Black women. Gender & Society, 13(2), 168–193.
- Kirby, E. L., & Krone, K. J. (2002). “The policy exists, but you can't use it”: Negotiating tensions in work-family policy. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 30(1), 50–77.
- Kobrynowicz, D., & Biernat, M. (1997). Decoding subjective evaluations: How stereotypes provide shifting standards. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(6), 579–601.
- Kornbluh, K. (2003). The parent trap, The Atlantic Monthly, 291 (January/February), 111–14.
- Kossek, E. E., Lautsch, B., & Eaton, S. C. (2005). Flexibility enactment theory: Relationships between type, boundaries, control, and work-family effectiveness. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and individual perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Lambert, S. J. (2008). Passing the buck: Labor flexibility practices that transfer risk onto hourly workers. Human Relations, 61(9), 1203–1227.
- Lambert, S. J. (2009). Making a difference for hourly employees. In A. Booth & A. Crouter (Eds.) Work-life policies that make a real difference for individuals, families, and organizations. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
- Lambert, S. J., & Henly, J. R. (2010). Work scheduling study: Managers’ strategies for balancing business requirements with employee needs: Manager survey results. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago SSA. Retrieved May 3, 2012 from http://ssascholars.uchicago.edu/work-scheduling-study/files/univ_of_chicago_work_scheduling_manager_report_6_25.pdf
- Lamont, M. (1992). Money, morals, & manners: The culture of the French and American upper-middle class. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
10.7208/chicago/9780226922591.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Lamont, M. (2000). The dignity of working men: Morality and the boundaries of race, class, and immigration. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
10.4159/9780674039889 Google Scholar
- Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385.
- Marks, L., & Palkovitz, R. (2004). American fatherhood types: The good, the bad, and the uninterested. Fathering, 2(2), p. 113–129.
10.3149/fth.0202.113 Google Scholar
- Mason, M. A., & Ekman, E. M. (2007). Mothers on the fast track: How a new generation can balance families and career. New York: Oxford University Press.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195182675.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (n.d.) OECD Stat Extracts, Average annual hours actually worked per worker. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DatasetCode=ANHRS (sortable data showing U.S. among top 11 countries with longest work hours and longer work hours than Japan, each year from 2000 to 2008).
- Pruchno, R. (1999). Raising grandchildren: The experiences of black and white grandmothers. The Gerontologist, 39(2), 209–221.
- Reskin, B., & Padavic, I. (2002). Women and Men at Work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
- Rogier, S. A., & Padgett, M. Y. (2004). The impact of utilizing a flexible work schedule on the perceived career advancement potential of women. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15, 89–106.
10.1002/hrdq.1089 Google Scholar
- Rosenthal, L., Levy, S., & Moyer, A. (2011). Protestant work ethic's relation to intergroup and policy attitudes: A meta-analytic review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 874–885.
- Rudman, L. A., & Mescher, K. (2013). Penalizing men who request a family leave: Is flexibility stigma a femininity stigma? Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 322–340.
- Sanchez-Burks, J. (2002). Protestant relational ideology and (in)attention to relational cues in work settings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 919–929.
- Shows, C., & Gerstel, N. (2009). Fathering, class, and gender: A comparison of physicians and emergency medical technicians. Gender & Society, 23, 161–187.
- Skocpol, T. (2000). The missing middle: Working families and the future of American social policy. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
- Solomon, C. M. (1994). Work/family's failing grade: Why today's initiatives aren't enough. Personnel Journal, 73(5), 72–87.
- Stone, P. (2007). Opting out? Why women really quit careers and head home. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
10.1525/9780520941793 Google Scholar
- Stone, P., & Hernandez, L. A. (2013). The all-or-nothing workplace: Flexibility stigma and “opting out” among professional-managerial women. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 235–256.
- In the Matter of the Arbitration Tractor Supply Co. and Gen'l. Drivers and Helpers Union, Local No. 554, 2001 WL 1301335 (Arb. Dichter, 2001).
- Townsend, N. W. (2002). The package deal: Marriage, work and fatherhood in men's lives. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
- Vandello, J. A., Hettinger, V. E., Bosson, J. K., & Siddiqi, J. (2013). When equal isn't really equal: The masculine dilemma of seeking work flexibility. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 303–321.
- Waldfogel, J. (1997). The effects of children on women's earnings. American Sociological Review, 62, 209–217.
- Wayne, J. H., & Cordiero, B. L. (2003). Who is a good organizational citizen? Social perception of male and female employees who use family leave. Sex Roles, 49(5/6), 233–46.
- Weber, M. (1976). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (T. Parsons, Trans.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Weeden, K. A. (2005). Is there a flexiglass ceiling? Flexible work arrangements and wages in the United States. Social Science Research, 34(2), 454–482.
- Wharton, A. S., Chivers, S., & Blair-Loy, M. (2008). Use of formal and informal work-family policies on the digital assembly line. Work and Occupations, 35(3), 327–350.
- Williams, J. C. (2000). Unbending gender: Why family and work conflict and what to do about it. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Williams, J. C. (2006). One sick child away from being fired: When “opting out” is not an option. San Francisco, CA: Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.worklifelaw.org/pubs/onesickchild.pdf
- Williams, J. C. (2010). Reshaping the work-family debate: Why men and class matter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Williams, J. C., & Boushey, H. (2010). The three faces of work-family conflict. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress & Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.worklifelaw.org/pubs/ThreeFacesofWork-FamilyConflict.pdf
- Williams, J. C., & Huang, P. (2011). Improving work-life fit in hourly jobs: An underutilized cost cutting strategy in a globalized world. San Francisco, CA: Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://www.worklifelaw.org/pubs/ImprovingWork-LifeFit.pdf
- Wilson, D. (2010, April 7). Novartis bias suit to begin. New York Times, B1. Retrieved May 11, 2010, from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/07/business/07gender.html